Welcome! This guide provides information and resources for finding information about the intersection of Indigenous Peoples, Traditional Medicine and Health/care in the United States. This guide will be a continual work in progress as new information and community needs evolve.
This guide intentionally prioritizes materials created by Indigenous peoples and centers Indigenous perspectives, ontologies, and epistemologies. Based on CU Boulder's geographic location in Colorado, materials centering the Indigenous peoples of these lands, specifically the Cheyenne, Ute, and Arapaho are also a central focus.
CU Boulder's Land Acknowledgement: The University of Colorado Boulder, Colorado’s flagship university, honors and recognizes the many contributions of Indigenous peoples in our state. CU Boulder acknowledges that it is located on the traditional territories and ancestral homelands of the Cheyenne, Arapaho, Ute and many other Native American nations. Their forced removal from these territories has caused devastating and lasting impacts. While the University of Colorado Boulder can never undo or rectify the devastation wrought on Indigenous peoples, we commit to improving and enhancing engagement with Indigenous peoples and issues locally and globally.
Using appropriate terminology to talk about Native nations shows respect for nations’ sovereignty. It also contributes toward Native narrative change.
It's important to acknowledge the diversity of Indigenous Peoples' cultures, traditions, and languages throughout the Western Hemisphere. When teaching about a particular tribe or nation, learning and using accurate terms specific to the community can prevent stereotypes and encourage cultural understanding and sensitivity among your students.
American Indian, Indian, Native American, or Native are acceptable and often used interchangeably in the United States; however, Native Peoples often have individual preferences on how they would like to be addressed. To find out which term is best, ask the person or group which term they prefer. When talking about Native groups or people, use the terminology the members of the community use to describe themselves collectively. There are also several terms used to refer to Native Peoples in other regions of the Western Hemisphere. The Inuit, Yup'ik, and AleutPeoples in the Arctic see themselves as culturally separate from Indians. In Canada, people refer to themselves as First Nations, First Peoples, or Aboriginal. In Mexico, Central America, and South America,the direct translation for Indian can have negative connotations. As a result, they prefer the Spanish word indígena(Indigenous), comunidad (community), and pueblo (people).
Native nations are independent nations within a nation. The term nation shows respect for sovereignty and the fact that Native nations each have their own systems of government. Globally, we have trivialized the term Tribe (think “bride tribe,” “political tribalism,” etc.). We don’t recommend using Tribe or Tribes to talk about Native nations. Some phrases and even names of Native nations contain the word Tribe or a derivative (Tribal colleges, for example). It’s ok to use Tribe in these cases.
American Indian people describe their own cultures and the places they come from in many ways. The word tribe and nation are used interchangeably but hold very different meanings for many Native people. Naming is complicated; colonization has complicated it further, (when Europeans arrived in the Americas, they used inaccurate pronunciations of the tribal names or renamed the tribes with European names). Some Native nations operate with names they did not originally choose for themselves. In other instances, you may see names referencing words the nation’s citizens use to refer to themselves in their Indigenous language. Many tribal groups are known officially by names that include nation. Every community has a distinct perspective on how they describe themselves. Not all individuals from one community may agree on terminology. There is no single American Indian culture or language.
The best term is always what an individual person or tribal community uses to describe themselves. Replicate the terminology they use or ask what terms they prefer. When you encounter multiple names, we encourage you to do your homework. Learn more about the history behind why many nations are currently working to change their names.
According to Elements of Indigenous Style, “[Using capitalization] is a deliberate decision that redresses mainstream society’s history of regarding Indigenous peoples as having no legitimate national identities; governmental, social, spiritual, or religious institutions; or collective rights.”
Here are a few examples of terms that should always be capitalized:
A capitalization note on Indigenous Peoples: The term Indigenous Peoples (uppercase I and P) refers to Indigenous People as groups with distinct legal rights. Indigenous peoples (uppercase I, lowercase p) refers to Indigenous peoples with individual rights.
- Avoid generalization
Use conditional language instead! Instead of generalizing phrases like "all Native Americans", use conditional language such as "most Native Americans" or "different Indigenous cultures". There is no one "Indian" language, culture, or way of thinking. Generalizations negate the diversity of Native peoples and create an inaccurate understanding for students. Whenever possible, have your students learn about specific individuals from a community.
- Use present tense and contemporary examples
Only using the past tense reinforces the myth of the "Vanishing Indian" and negates the experiences and the dynamic cultures of Native peoples today. If your curriculum teaches the history of Native Americans, also do some research on the community today. Teach your students about contemporary culture and topics. Use the present tense and make Native Americans relevant and contemporary. Emphasize that Indigenous peoples have living cultures that change over time. If you do need to use the past tense, provide context by including dates. Otherwise, it may seem like Native cultures are no longer living.
- Refrain from using terminology and phrases that perpetuate stereotypes
Common phrases like "Indian Princess", "Low man on the totem pole", "sitting Indian style", etc. perpetuate stereotypes and imply a monolithic culture. If you are unsure about a phrase, do some research into its origins and think about its meaning and implications.
- Language is sacred. Wizipan Little Elk explains, “In every culture in the world, you get a name. You’re called something. Your people are called something. Your identity is tied up in whatever that name is. Names have the power to create life.” Conversations about terminology and language deserve deep thought and attention; take the process seriously.
- Terminology is ever-changing. This quote from Elements of Indigenous Style, says it particularly well: “The process of decolonizing language surrounding Indigenous peoples is not finished; terms, names, and styles continue to evolve.” Check in with Indigenous organizations and individuals from time to time to get a pulse on the current conversation. Don’t assume that your learning around terminology is complete.
- Terminology is highly personal. Dr. Twyla Baker notes, “There is a diversity of thought within our community. There is no great big governing board of Indians that says, ‘Well, ok, we’re all going to say this, and we all agree!’” Avoid thinking that all Native people prefer and use the same terminology.
- A comprehensive guide does not exist. Be skeptical of any resource that claims to cover all aspects of terminology related to Native nations. 574 federally-recognized Native nations with unique histories, cultures, and languages share geography with the United States. We encourage you to seek out a variety of resources created by Native-led organizations rather than looking for a comprehensive document.
Learn more via the National Park Service, Native Knowledge 360, Native Governance Center, and Native America Today.
- Alaska Native: refers to the Indigenous people of Alaska. Native Alaskan is anyone from Alaska (including non-Indigenous).
- American Indian: Some tribes (and their associated parks) prefer Native American. Use specific tribal name(s) whenever possible, accurate, and appropriate. See also First Nations, tribal names.
- First Nation(s): Refers to aboriginal people in Canada who are neither Inuit (people of the Canadian Arctic) nor Métis (descendants of First Nation people who married Europeans). Often used in the plural in the collective sense, as in a program for First Nations youth. The term is widely used in Canada but is not used in the US, except in connection with Métis whose homelands include northwest Minnesota, North Dakota, or other northern states. See also American Indian.
- Indigiqueer/Indigequeer: This term acknowledges that not all LGBTQ+ Indigenous people identify as Two-Spirit. Indigiqueer was created by TJ Cuthand (Plains Cree) in 2004 when working to title the Vancouver Queer Film Festival’s Indigenous/Two-Spirit program. After the term began being used more widely, TJ wrote, “I liked the idea of Indigequeer. Because Queer is kind of a confrontational label, it’s one of those old reclamations that makes people uncomfortable. Indigenous isn’t a really confrontational label (although everything else about it is because we are all still all over the globe resisting) so putting the two together makes this word I really liked.”
- Nation-Specific Terms: In addition to Indigiqueer/Indigequeer, Two-Spirit/2Spirit/2S, the language of many different Native nations affirms many diverse gender identities and roles within communities. This reflects a larger cultural framework that values the fluidity of gender. While we cannot share a full list of these terms nor the roles they play within their specific communities, we wanted to share a few examples reflecting the diversity of Indian Country:
- Native: The term Native is often used officially or unofficially to describe Indigenous peoples from the United States (Native Americans, Native Hawaiians, Alaska Natives), but it can also serve as a specific descriptor (Native people, Native lands, Native traditions, etc.).
- Native American: Use if requested by specific tribes or parks. See American Indian.
- Native Hawaiian: “Native Hawaiian” is a racial classification used by the United States. Also known as Kanaka Maoli, this term refers to the indigenous or aboriginal people (and their descendants) of the Hawaiian Islands. Hawai'i is named after its native people. Living in Hawai'i doesn't make you Hawaiian, it makes you a resident of Hawai'i. [Indigenous people of Hawai'i are considered Native Hawaiians/Hawaiians; use "resident of Hawai'i" for all others living in Hawai'i to recognize this fact.] See also: Asian/Pacific American Heritage Month Resource Guide
- Tribal Name(s): Use specific tribal name(s) whenever possible, accurate, and appropriate. Also the preference is to use the singular noun: Navajo, Lakota, Tlingit. See also American Indian. Examples: The Navajo entered Canyon de Chelly about 300 years ago. The Anishinaabek fished in Lake Superior.
- Two-Spirit/2Spirit/2S: Elder and organizer Myra Laramee (Fish River Cree Nation) pulled this phrase from the Anishinaabemowin language “niizh manidoowag”, which translates to “two spirits.” This was agreed upon as an umbrella term for gender variant people across Indian Country to use at the 3rd Annual Inter-Tribal Native American, First Nations, Gay and Lesbian Gathering in Winnipeg, Manitoba in 1990. Some Two-Spirit people may also be nonbinary, trans, or queer but these identities are not the same. Two-Spirit specifically includes the specific social and ceremonial roles Two-Spirit people play within their communities, not just their gender or sexuality.
Learn more via the National Park Service, Native Knowledge 360, Native Governance Center, and Native America Today.
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